TOPIC+The+Russians

= RUSSIAN THEATRE REVOLUTIONARIES =

TH3172: Engaging Theatre History II - Spring 2010 - University of Minnesota - Twin Cities - Professor Megan Lewis
Date: 5-06-10

A Paradox :
Let's play a game... Read the following words and say the first thing that comes to your mind: Russia.The Method. Moscow Art Theatre. Let us guess your answer. You came up with one word: Stanislavsky. Is it not intriguing that Stanislavsky is //the// name that comes up in association with the aforementioned three terms? This one person is solely associated with the world's "first theatre", which was actually a melting pot of several theatre revolutionaries. Why is Stanislavsky the only one that is remembered out of a large number of artists? Stanislavsky is remembered for the "Method", which is actually a popularized (and Americanized?) version of his actual acting style, the "System". The sole fame of Stanislavsky seems unfair when one takes the time to acknowledge theatre personalities who not only contributed to his ideas and spread his acting technique, but also created their own acting styles based their opinion of the "System". In order to understand the unequal representation in the history of theatre, one needs to take into account how these artists were driven and shaped by the political, economical, and social spheres in which they all hail from.

**Political and Economical Influences:**
The early 1900’s was an exciting time in Russian History. After a long history of "tension between the forces of authoritarianism in politics and force of opposition and resistance from both above and below" (Miller, 4), changes started to happen.

A series of Revolutions known as ‘the’ [|Russian Revolution] was taking place following Russia’s loss against Japan in the Russo-Japanese war in 1905. It led to the formation of multi-party system and the Russian Constitution of 1906”. The next wave of Revolutions happened in February 1917 earning the name February revolution that took place in St Petersburg. As a result, the Provisional Government came to power, and Petrograd Soviet formed. Finally, in October 1917 the Bolshevik party’s Red Army gained the power through the October Revolution, establishing the Bolshevik government, the communist party with led by Vladimir Lenin.

Surprisingly, Russian Theatre survived these difficult times really well. It may be because the roots of Russian Theatre are so deep and Russians have built their art out of their sorrow as suggested by Sayler. For them, theatre was never only entertainment, and during hard times, they return for relief and explanation of life. However, a shift happened with the introduction of Lenin’s New Economic Policy (NEP), and the rigorous ideals of the Marxist-Leninist ideology. Due to Lenin’s “emergency program” the New Economic Policy, the Moscow Art Theatre struggled financially, forcing them to split the company half and while Danchenko stayed to direct the MAT, Stanislavsky took half of the company including the most famous actors (Chekhov included) on a 2 year tour (1922-4) in Europe and the US to financially support the theatre. Economics was tough on individual theatre makers as well. Stanislavsky lost his wealth and Chekhov was forced to close his school and return on stage to earn living as a professional actor.

The political change brought not only financial difficulties, but also “growing Soviet control over the arts” (Carnicke,14). The Marxist-Leninist philosophy ruled over theatre as well thus Socialist Realism became the “only lawful acting style” (Carnicke,14). Paradoxically ‘realism’ the acting style introduced and established by the MAT through Stanislavsky, became the obstacle for many of the geniuses that the MAT had fostered. Communist censorship did not tolerate any “abstract” artistic style that deviated from Social Realism, and fighting against it was a “form of suicide” (Tamarchenko,25). Theatre censorship grew so powerful that led to the liquidation of Chekhov in 1927 and the execution of Meyerhold in 1940.

THE MOSCOW ART THEATRE:
On June 22, 1897, Konstantin Stanislavsky and Vladimir Ivanovich Nemirovich-Danchenko had their infamous meeting that lasted 18 hours. Out of this meeting, Stanislavsky and Danchenko decided to form an Arts Theatre that featured ensemble acting and affordable tickets for everyone, making theatre easily accessible. The Moscow Art Theater (MAT) was known as the "first theatre" o r " Russia's first ensemble theatre and the first to deny allegiance to the fickle tastes of its patrons" (Jones). Within the Moscow Art Theatre, Konstantin Stanislavsky was able to develop his own unique acting style in collaboration with many other great artists (Jones). There were many studios that developed out of the MAT that allowed Stanislavsky and other artists to develop their own acting styles. For more information about the Moscow Art Theatre, click [|here].

//(inside of the Moscow Art Theatre)//

[[image:Stanislavsky.jpg width="132" height="185"]] [[image:Stanislavsky_2.jpg width="135" height="172"]][[image:stanislavsky_3.jpg width="145" height="180"]]
The man who is remembered as Konstantin Stanislavsky was originally born as Konstantin Sergeyevich Alexeyev on January 5, 1863 in Moscow. Stanislavsky was born to a wealthy family who gained their wealth in the thread production business. His family was engaged in ballet, theatre, circus, etc., and Stanislavsky was able to participate in his family's theatre group at a young age. While he participated in theatre since his youth, within the confines of his family, acting was considered beneath his social station. He coined his stage name of Konstantin Stanislavsky in order to escape being known for his money or social rank, and created a new identity in which to base his acting career off of. For more information about the life of Stanislavsky, click [|here]. By the age of 25, Stanislavsky was was well-known as a novice actor. Stanislavsky is also known for his literary works; he wrote "My Life in Art" in 1925 and "An Actor Prepares" in 1926, which are read by most actors in training (Jones, Bishop).


 * Stanislavsky's "System":**

Stanislavsky was co-founder of the Moscow Art Theatre, alongside Danchenko, and worked as the artistic director of the Moscow Art Theatre. In 1918, he founded the first studio of the MAT in which he developed the "System", which combined ensemble work, psychological realism, and physicality of the body (Jones). The system focused on affective memory - using the actor's real emotions to portray an emotion on stage, but affective memory was not the most important part of his "System". It also emphasized the physicality of an emotional expression, rather than just the emotion itself. Stanislavsky believed that the physical portrayal on stage was equally important in expressing an emotion and telling a story. Techniques that were common in implementation of the "System" were relaxation, concentration, and line repetition all done to build one's character (Acting School Stop). For more information about Stanislavsky's "System", click [|here]

MICHAEL CHEKHOV:
Michael Chekhov, one of the biggest and ‘loudest’ challengers of Stanislavsky, was referred to as his “most brilliant student” as Mel Gordon writes in his Preface of //On The Technique Of Acting//. The nephew of the playwright Anton Chekhov was born in St. Petersburg on August 16. 1891. He was already an established actor at age 21, when Stanislavsky invited him to audition for the MAT. He was accepted, and studied under the direct mentorship of Vakhtangov. His controversy with the Master started early when Stanislavsky dropped him from a class for executing an acting exercise with overheated imagination and not emotional recall.

Regardless, he built a reputation as an actor and independent thinker during his time at the MAT while he started to develop his own style. In 1918 Chekhov opened his own studio in Moscow. It was his first attempt to pass on his way of acting. He came across Hindu philosophy, particularly Rudolf Steiner and his Anthroposophy, and it had a great impact on his work.

In 1919 Chekhov publicly challenged Stanislavsky when he published a detailed analysis of the Master’s work. Stanislavsky was furious because he made his students promise that no one reveals details about their work. However, he forgave Chekhov and in 1923 after Vaktanghov’s death, he made Chekhov the director of the Second Moscow Art Theatre.

During Lenin’s New Economic Policy period Chekhov’s school struggled with financial difficulties. Around 1923 Chekhov’s technique “became the subject of government criticism” (Gordon,xxi) for his experiments with [|Eurythmy] and supernatural subjects. By 1927, he was officially marked for liquidation for his acting practices and his interest in Steiner who was already forbidden in Russia. 17 performers left the Second MAT as a protest against Chekhov’s technique.

After receiving invitation from the director Max Reinhardt to perform in Germany, Chekhov has started his journey through Europe to the US as an actor, director and teacher, and never returned to Russia. He worked in Berlin, Paris, England, Latvia, and Lithuania and finally he ended up in the US where he worked until his death in 1955.

Chekhov essentially turned Stanislavsky’s System on its head as suggested by Mel Gordon. Similarly to Meyerhold, Chekhov criticized the master’s realistic approach to acting. Chekhov thought that through //emotional recall//, the actor built on similarities between him and his character, and over time it resulted in repetition of the self, and fading of his talent. Although both Stanislavski and Chekhov were aiming to develop an acting method that goes beyond conventional theatre, Chekhov had a radically different way of approach. Instead of reaching for emotional memories deep in the actor’s personal history, Chekhov found inspiration in the performer’s IMAGINATION. He argued that emotional recall is unreliable, harmful and may lead the actors into uncontrolled emotions. Instead, he encouraged his students to find an external, fictional, imaginary stimuli that can evoke their emotions.
 * Chekhov's Technique:**

Chekhov also developed the concept of PHYCHOLOGICAL GESTURE. According to Gordon, psychological gesture is a concentrated, repeatable movement or action that evokes kinesthetic response in the actor. Every character has its own psychological gesture that contains its motivation and personality trait.

Chekhov found Stanislavsky’s approach to directing problematic as well. He asserted that with careful wording, the director could motivate an actor in a more inspiring way, so he invented an actor friendly VOCABULARY. When Stanislavsky would tell his actor to “relax” or “concentrate”, a series of unnecessary thought processes would begin within the actor; “He is telling me to relax because I’m probably too tense”. Instead, Chekhov would offer visceral mental images such as “walk with a feeling of ease”, which advocated a more positive and motivating instruction.

VSEVOLOD MEYERHOLD: //(10 February1874 – 2 February 1940)// He was a Russian and Soviet theatre director, actor and theatrical producer, who believed that art should always serve a political and social function. He grew frustrated by Stanislavsky’s insistence on naturalistic acting hence he became a life long experimentor.

Meyerhold founded his own theatre in 1922, which was known as The Meyerhold Theatre until 1938, which incorporated a lot of e xperimentation and symbolism. Check out [|__**MMM**__]** - The Meyerhold Memorial Museum **

** “Only when the body becomes malleable like a wax actor can express himself” - Vsevolod Meyerhold **


 * //Relationship between Meyerhold and Stanislavsky// **
 * Stanislavky had a major influence on Meyerhold. They both worked together at the MAT when Meyerhold joined in 1902. Both men established new and radical methods influencing many theatre schools. Their use of theatre to convey political issues helped the Bolsheviks promote Soviet issues at a crucial time (Edward, Braun). **

//How did the Russian Revolution & its politics affect Meyerhold?// The Russian Revolution of 1917 made Meyerhold one of the most enthusiastic activists of the new Soviet Theatre, where he tried to radicalize Russian theatre. People might say that as a supporter of Bolsheviks, Meyerhold exploited the Russian Revolution to propagate his own reforms. However, not many recognique how unique and complex his work was. It was this very idea of complexity that got him in political trouble in Stalinist Russia. And it is this political trouble that led to many of you never hearing of him. ([|Britannica])

In 1939, Meyerhold was arrested and accused of anti-government political activities. He was tortured and executed in Moscow on February 2, 1940.


 * Biomechanics** **:**

Moreover, Meyerhold developed his famous 'biomechanical' acting style, which was influenced both by circus effects and scientific management' theories. Biomechanics teaches the actor to ask himself "how" not "what" to do it. He based his system on the representations of the human form in motion found in ancient Greek, Egyptian and Middle Eastern vases and other art works. It is these series of representation of physical actions that link together to tell a story. "Biomechanics consists of ** 44 ** pedagogical principles that give the direction for the student comprehension and that form the basis on which every actor should began to develop the proper technique. The center of the system is the actor’s body, considered like a first expressive and creative mean, principal instrument of the communication". ([|Source of Biomechanics] )

A Biomechanical étude is a miniature storyline made up of three parts - intention, realization, and reaction. Each of these parts, in turn, comprises four stages of movement: //otkas, posyl, stoika,//and //tormos.([|Physical Media])//

YEVGENY VAKHTANGOV:

 Yevgeny Vakhtangov was know for his work as a Russian theatrical director at the Moscow Art Theatre and a developer of "Fantastic Realism." He was born in 1883 but not much is know about him until 1911, when he joined the Moscow Art Theatre as an actor ( "Yevgeny Bagrationovich Vakhtangov"). The next year Vakhtangov began his actor training in the First Studio under Stanislavsky. Although he agreed with much of what Stanislavsky taught, Vakhtangov was also fascinated by the "bold" experiments of Meyerhold. In 1920, Vakhtangov would take charge of the Third workshop. Though his work with this company he would develop the style of "fantastic realism." This was a style that bridged the gap between the “System” and “Biomechanics.” Vakhtangov remained the remained the director of the Third Workshop until his early death in 1922. He died of cancer at age 39 (“Yevgeny Vakhtangov”).

The end result of Vakhtangov’s research was "fantastic realism." As defined by Oleg Mirochnikov it is "a combination of the reality of life and the 'fantastical' nature of theater. To say it another way 'fantastic realism' is theatrical realism, i.e. a whole complex of theatrical methods by which one can express real life on stage (Mirochnikov)."
 * Fantastic Realism:**

This theatrical style, that Vakhtangov originated, blended Stanislavsky's “psychological realism” with the “graphic expressionism” of Meyerhold's work (Orani, 463). Where Vakhtangov breaks away from Stanislavsky is that he believed theater should not just be a mirror image of real life but that it should be a heightened, theatrical, reality. Another difference is that where Stanislavsky believes the actor should leave their personal life behind to become character, Vakhtangov feels an actor should use their personal life to bring a unique immediacy to the character. This also keeps the actor performing the character as opposed to “living through the feelings”(Mirochnikov).

To gain a deeper understanding of the acting style formed by Vakhtangov, take a look at [|__The Vakhtangov Technique__], the article by Oleg Mirochnikov. The article is full of insight into Vakhtangov's acting style.

The Translation of Techniques to America:
When the Moscow Art Theatre suffered financially due to the political and economical states of Russia, the MAT divided into two units. One part stayed with Danchenko in Russia and continued the work and performances of the Moscow Art Theatre. The other half of the MAT traveled with Stanislavksy on a tour throughout Europe and the United States from 1922 to 1924. Ultimately, the goal of this tour was to increase funding for the Moscow Art Theatre. Stanislavsky decision to tour the United States was triggered because great interest in his work had already existed in the country. Stanislavsky took the most well-known actors of MAT, including Michael Chekhov, Richard Boleslavsky, and Maria Ouspenskaya, on tour with him. Many of these actors decided to stay in the United States at the end of the MAT's tour because of the political situation in Russia. (Carnicke, 14). These members of the MAT that stayed in the U.S. were responsible for the spread of Stanislavsky’s “System” through teaching it to actors in America. While in the United States, Stanislavsky hastily published “My Life in Art” and “An Actor Prepares” in English and received compensation instantly (Carnicke 29). Stanislavsky was assisted by a team of editors who also had input on the books. As a result, these books were written quickly and in a language that Stanislavsky did not speak, but it did allow a vast population to be exposed to his thoughts and ideas. His theories were published incorrectly and underdeveloped. Stanislavsky revised “My Life in Art” when he later returned to Moscow.

After the tour returned to Moscow, Chekhov stayed in the United States. In 1941, Chekhov opened his second theatre studio on 56th Street in New York, but the school discontinued because many actors were drafted during WWII. He moved to Los Angeles, where he started a new career in the film industry. He played several character roles in Hollywood movies and received an Oscar nomination for his role in Spellbound. In Hollywood, he taught actors such as: Marilyn Monroe, Jack Palace, Anthony Quinn, Mala Powers, John Dehner, John Abbot, and Akim Tamiroff. Chekhov's Technique is still taught today in workshops, acting studios, university education, etc. There is even an organization, the Michael Chekhov Association, that is dedicated to teaching his Technique worldwide. Inspired by the Moscow Art Theatre’s performances in the U.S, American actors Lee Strasberg, Harold Clurman, and Cheryl Crawford established their own ensemble-based theatre group in 1931 comprised of 28 actors under the name of The Group Theatre in New York. Of the members in the group, only Stella Adler had studied directly with Stanislavsky, but only for a short period of time (Carnicke, 28). The members of Group Theatre were dissatisfied with theatre in the U.S. at the current time, which they thought to be "old-fashioned, light entertainment" (PBS). Their goal was to transform American theatre and produce plays that would be influential. Lee Strasberg, who studied the "System", created his own acting style named the "Method" based on his studied with Stanislavsky, which is misunderstood as being Stanislavsky's work. The Group Theatre adopted the "Method". The difference in the "Method' from the "System" is due to the fact that artists mostly learned the "System" through observation of rehearsals and performances from the Moscow Art Theatre tour". (Carnicke 27). These artist's continued Stanislavsky's work without Stanislavsky - it is a vague translation of the "System", but is no longer in his control, but yet it was still coined as his.  It was arduous to distinguish what exactly was involved in the "System" from the glimpse America had seen in Stanislavsky’s performances and books. Lee Strasberg, of Group Theatre, created what is know today as Method acting. This type of acting is associated with the techniques an actor uses to create a life-like performance. Actors use their own experiences with an attached emotion to create a genuine performance of a character, known as “affective memory”. Strasberg derived the "Method" from what he understood of the "System" and continued to teach this changed technique in 1947 with the Actors Studio, where he later became the company’s artistic director (The Actor's Studio).

Meyerhold's Biomechanics followed a very slow and almost invisible journey into the United States. After Biomechanics became tabboo in Russia, Meyerhold taught a group of ten actors, from whom only two, Gennadi Bogdonov and Alexai Levinsky, continued teaching and experimenting with Biomechanics. Vladimir Rovinsky trained in Biomechanics directly with Alexei Levinsky in Russia, and is one of only a handful of trained teachers teaching Biomechanics in the U.S. (Channer).

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From all these exceptional theatre makers, the question of "Why is Stanislavsky the one remembered?" still begs to be answered. It appears to be that in history, certain people are named as the "Fathers" of certain movements and ideas. What does it say about how history is written? What is this desire of putting movements and ideas into categories, and what is the purpose of choosing one name or face as the central figure? As suggested by Megan Lewis, working with frameworks and categories helps to tell stories. Russian theatre history today is written from the point of Stanislavsky's success making history his story. History is not always about facts; it is about who ultimately was deemed the most successful and gained enough power to write history. Thus, the story is written from a certain perspective, emphasizing some things and ignoring others. For instance, during the research process, we were not aware of the importance of perspectives in writing theater history until we came together as a group and discussed our findings. It was striking to discover facts left out in our individual sources, but through compilation of numerous articles, we all learned more information about each person we were researching through multiple perspectives. Even those sources that focused on certain individuals in depth were discussed in relation to Stanislavsky, making him the person to which comparisons are made.======

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The Communist ideals and theatre censorship of the time had a crucial impact on the success of these artists. The art of both Chekhov and Meyerhold went against Soviet ideals. They both experimented with abstract and forbidden concepts, which led to various degrees of persecution. These men were insistent on keeping their art true to their beliefs and were unwilling to conform to the Soviet regime. Because of this, both men were not able to work publicly in Russia and were forced to continue their work outside of the walls of the MAT. The way in which Chekhov and Meyerhold dealt with their situations attests to the varying levels of success On the other hand, we have Stanislavksy who also experimented with forbidden ideas. Contrary to the others, he pretended to play the game and "censored" his work by adusting how things were said so they appeared to be acceptable. This allowed Stanislavsky to be more publicly seen; he was able to have the wide-spread acceptance in Russia.======

Because of the United States?
The two of the four Russian artists that were the most successful were Stanislavsky and Chekhov who introduced their work in the United States. The other two artists, Meyerhold and Vakhtangov, were much less known. Even within the work of Stanislavsky and Chekhov, there is a difference in their level of recognition. Does the United States decide which people deserve recognition, and what is the criteria for these decisions? Also, it is interesting to look at how, within the United States, the "System" became the "Method". The "Method" being an Americanized acting style that is only loosely based off of Stanislavsky's ideas. As an overarching question, why, and to what extent, certain ideas, movements, and people are represented in theatre history. What is the role of the United States in this process of writing theatre history? What if Meyerhold or Vakhtangov was able to bring his ideas to the U.S.? Would he have gained a comparable amount of success in comparison to Stanislavsky and Chekhov?

**Reflective Blog:

The Russian's Group Reflective Blog **

= ** Timeline: ** =

[|Russian Theatre Revolutionaries' Formation and Translation into the United States]

**Suggested Reading:** //Stanislavsky: Uncensored and Unabridged// by Sharon Marie Carnicke. //The Theatre of Meyerhold: Revolution and the Modern Stage// by Edward Braun, 1995. //On The Technique Of Acting// by Michael Chekhov //Russian Theatre Under The Revolution// by Oliver M. Sayler

** Citations: ** Gordon, Mel. Preface. __On The Technique Of Acting__. by Chekhov, Michael. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc, 1991.

Miller, A. Martin. __The Russian Revolution__. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 2001.

Sayler, M. Oliver. __The Russian Theatre Under the Revolution__. Boston: Little, Brown, And Company, 1920.

Tamarchnko, Anna. “Theatre Censorship” __Index On Censorship__ 9: 4, 23 – 28 1980. 22 April 2010 http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a783441724&db=all

Carnicke, Haron Marie. Stanislavsky's System: Pathways for the Actor," in Alison Hodge, ed. __Twentieth Century Actor Training__. London: Routledge, 2000, 11-36

MICHA Michael Chekhov Association. Home page. 15 March. 2010. http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.michaelchekhov.org/images/michael_chekhov2.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.michaelchekhov.org/michael_chekhov.htm&usg=__bd1T0YdUizW552MJ0jZ7tB6ZmgU=&h=171&w=507&sz=19&hl=en&start=7&um=1&itbs=1&tbnid=lop7HrPIXAEDXM:&tbnh=44&tbnw=131&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dmichael%2Bchekhov%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26sa%3DN%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26tbs%3Disch:1__//

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//Amandaucfv. "Constantin Stanislavski". UCFV Theatre 101 Weblog Theatre Blog for UCFV Theatre 101 Students. 4-21-20 <[|http://ucfvthea101.wordpress.com/2007/11/08/constantin-stanislavski/&h=466&w=1000&sz=240&tbnid=3EP5HuP36FMv-M:&tbnh=69&tbnw=149&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dmoscow%2Bart%2Btheatre&usg=__]//======

// "American Masters: Constantin Stanislavsky". PBS. 4-22-10 . //

//Beaujour, Elizabeth. "Russian Drama with Prof. Elizabeth Beaujour". 4-25-10 .//
Braun, Edward 'The Theatre of Meyerhold: Revolution on the Modern Stage' (Fletcher,& Son Ltd, Norwich, 1979)

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Chadderton, David. "A Potted Biography of Constantin Stanislavski". Suite 101 - Theatre History. 4-25-10 <[|__http://theatrehistory.suite101.com/article.cfm/a_potted_biography_of_constantin_stanislavski__]>.======

//Channer, Lisa. Email interview. April 20, 2010.//

"Michael Chekhov". Online image. Michael Chekhov Association. 2010. http://www.michaelchekhov.org/

"Psychological gesture". Online image. Catherine Albers homegpage. http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.catherinealbers.com/chehkovlogot.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.catherinealbers.com/workshops.htm&usg= ArOGqWJxj-uImZjWocewVVCoUuU=&h=205&w=140&sz=4&hl=en&start=9&um=1&itbs=1&tbnid=GxfHEQwcwPoR4M:&tbnh=105&tbnw=72&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dpsychological%2Bgesture%2Bchekhov%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26sa%3DN%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26tbs%3Disch:1

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"Yevgeny Bagrationovich Vakhtangov." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24 Mar. 2010. <[|__**http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/621767/Yevgeny-Bagrationovich-Vakhtangov**__]>.======