TOPIC+Technology

Stephanie Bertumen **~** Megan Johnson **~** Monica Rojas **~** Sarah Savage **~** Gretchen Schreiber **~** Jenn Stokka TH 3172: Engaging Theatre History II, Spring 2010, Univ. of MN, Prof. Megan Lewis
 * THE SPECTACLE OF THEATER TECHNOLOGY **


 * "IF YOUR JOB is to leaven ordinary lives with elevating spectacle, be elevating or be gone." **
 * ~ George F. Will **

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“Every Tragedy […] must have six parts which determine its quality- namely, Plot, Character, Diction, Thought, Spectacle, Song.

The ** Spectacle ** has, indeed, an emotional attraction of its own, but of all the parts, it ** is the least artistic **, and connected least with the art of poetry. For the power of Tragedy, we may be sure, is felt even apart from representation and actors. Besides,** the production of spectacular effects depends more on the art of the stage machinist than on that of the poet.” **

~ // Poetics //, Aristotle

==tech·nol·o·gy   / <span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 13pt;">t <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 13pt;">ɛ <span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 13pt;">k <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 13pt;">ˈ <span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 13pt;">n <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 13pt;">ɒ <span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 13pt;">l <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 13pt;">ə <span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 13pt;">d <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 13pt;">ʒ <span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 13pt;">i  <span style="display: none; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif';">/   //  <span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal;">–noun   //== <span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">“the sum of the ways in which social groups provide themselves with the material objects of their civilization” ("Technology").
 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">HOW DOES TECHNOLOGY INFLUENCE OUR PERCEPTION OF THEATER? **

In theatre, we think of technology as what is used to produce a show: the set, the sound, and the lights. If you don’t actively work in the technical aspects of theatre, you may never think about how everything is constantly evolving and changing to create the ever-present illusion of disbelief. The paradox of technology lies in the unknown, the ever-changing result of progress. Everyone knows that technology effects our perception of a show—whether it adds or detracts from an audience’s enjoyment of the performance is entirely subjective.


 * ~ ****<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> On one side of the issue rests the idea that people now expect a 'show' when they see theatre, and that the true grit and raw aspects of theatre have been lost to purely spectacular forms of dramatic presentation. **


 * ~ ****<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The other side views technological advances as an addition to the enjoyment of theatre as entertainment. **



<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1967, Marxist philosopher ** Guy Debord ** published //Society of the Spectacle,// a work of critical theory which dealt primarily with the commodification of enjoyment through more and more spectacular means. Debord’s theories are based on an ** economic model **. When a society is young, its main concern is survival. Therefore, all of the commodities produced are meant to see to this survival. As soon as a society begins to progress and the economy takes off, the social focus has the luxury to shift from the production of goods to the production of enjoyment. When this shift occurs, commodities take on new meanings: they can now be produced to provide citizens with satisfaction and happiness. This progression from commodity to enjoyment marks the beginning of spectacle. ** Spectacle, as defined by Guy Debord, is where the tangible world is replaced by images that are intangible but present themselves as tangible. **
 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">GUY DEBORD AND THE SOCIAL PURPOSE **

Debord writes that, “[Spectacle] is not a supplement to the real world, it is superadded decoration.” By this, Debord believes that spectacle is completely unnecessary, and that “superadded decoration” is not actually enhancing the world in any way. “Superadded decoration” in the theater world represents all of the superfluous technology and design aspects that we throw into productions to make them “better.” ** Debord would argue that theater needs less spectacle and more social purpose. **

First, Debord writes that “the spectacle cannot be understood as an abuse of the world of vision, as a product of the techniques of mass dissemination of images. It is, rather, a Weltanschauung which has become actual, materially translated. It is a world vision which has become objectified.” By this, Debord means that the ** spectacle has created a view of the world that is only seen through commodification, objectification, and materialism. ** Such a way of viewing the world is dangerous: when the spectacle creates the world in this image, society begins to “philosophize” reality, thereby distorting the public perception of the “real” world (Debord). In other words, we begin to think everything we see—including that on stage— represents reality.

In addition, spectacle’s way of making something that is powerful (including high-profile theater productions) suitable for a special purpose has created a hierarchical system within the spectacle itself. Because of this, we as a society are left to believe that there is only one spectacle, and “all other expression is banned” (Debord). This is in accord with the <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">**views of the majority of modern Western societies, which claim that “good” theater is riddled with technological advancements.**

Spectacle and commodification have been completely achieved when we as an audience begin to self-regulate. This means that we no longer defy the “rules” of an object: instead, we force others to stay within that box. This hegemonic control of “the spectacular” would ultimately destroy any other form of spectacular entertainment.


 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In short: if all forms of spectacle stopped focusing on creating commodification, materialism, and objectification within society and instead focused on the actual, //real// social problems in our society, our perception view of the world would shift from concentrating on trivial things to the actuality of our everyday lives. **



<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Guy Debord’s central argument asserts that ** spectacle functions as a means of making money **. It regulates production in two ways:
 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">COMMODIFICATION VS. ENJOYMENT **

1. First, it ** defines what a product is to the masses **. For example: when most laypeople think of “theater,” they call to mind a large Broadway production. Spectacle, therefore, has defined theater in our society to be inseparable from Broadway: if you were to present new dramatic forms to this audience, it would be difficult—if not impossible—for them to integrate these dramatic forms into their preconception of “theater,” as this new form defies the rules set forth by spectacle.

2. <span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Second, spectacle has to keep getting ** bigger and better **within its own limitations. Again, we note this trend in Broadway theater productions: they continue to outdo themselves with bigger and better technology to keep the audience coming back to the theater.



<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Nothing epitomizes American culture’s obsession with spectacular theater more than Broadway. Broadway productions are staged in one of professional theatres in Manhattan’s Theatre District, and serve as a major source of revenue for the tourism industry in New York: Broadway theaters sold over 12 million tickets and generated more than ** $943 million in revenue during the 2008-2009 season alone ** ("Broadway Season Statistics"). Many Broadway shows have become classic fixtures in the dramatic arts: a select number of musicals, including //The Phantom of the Opera//, //Cats//, and //Les Misérables// have enjoyed more than 15 years in continuous performance, literally staging thousands of shows before millions of viewers ("List of the Longest-running Broadway Shows"). Due to its high-profile and outstanding reputation for success, Broadway theater represents one of the highest levels of commercial achievement in the performing arts.
 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">BROADWAY AS A COMMERCIAL BEAST **

The <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">**Walt Disney Company** has been particularly adept at capitalizing on Broadway theatre’s potential for revenue. Well-known Disney musicals including //Beauty and the Beast// and //The Lion King// have been successfully adapted for the Broadway stage, and have found commercial success through staging spectacular, family-friendly productions. ** Disney shows are also unique in that they frequently tailor their performance schedules throughout the season in order to maximize audience attendance **("Broadway Theatre"). Furthermore, Disney makes their material accessible to viewers everywhere by traveling beyond Broadway to stage touring versions of their shows around the world.




 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">THEATER AS A FORM OF ENJOYMENT **


 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">“THEATRE IS a source of entertainment and inspiration and has the ability to unify the many diverse cultures and peoples that exist throughout the world.” **
 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">~ Dame Judi Dench **

<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Many feel that theater must act as a dynamic social commentary: anything less than that is a product of consumerism. However, the simple entertainment factor of theater holds a great amount of power as well. Theater as entertainment has the ability to draw families, socioeconomic groups, and different cultures together. Going to see a spectacle or spectacular show is a form of enjoyment and relaxation. In a theater performance, an audience can be carried away by the emotions evoked by the piece. The spectacle allows us to forget about our problems for a few minutes and see a performance. While theater as social commentary has its place, ** there is also a place for shallow enjoyment of the spectacular. **

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">On one hand, it can be argued that Julie Taymor’s expertise helped to create a <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">**beautiful and powerful piece of theater** that speaks to the significance of family and deals with such issues as self-identity, love, responsibility, and other complexities of life and death. On the other hand, the show can be seen as an easily-consumed parade of extravagant masks and puppets. On this side of the argument, it seems that Taymor’s design combines styles from different cultures (namely, Balinese, Masai, Indonesian), creating another style which can be more easily consumed by the general public (<span style="line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Maiandra GD'; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Maiandra GD';">[|http://disney.go.com] ). It seems, then, that one could contend that the design is about a denial of authenticity in order to create an image that would be more easily and widely accepted by audiences than something that was wholly true to a culture or tradition that might seem too “foreign” to understand, let alone appreciate. <span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Andalus;">


 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">JULIE TAYMOR **

<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Julie Taymor directs theater, opera, and film. Her long list of achievements includes directing the Broadway production of //The Lion King//, //The Magic Flute//, and the film //Across the Universe//. **// The Lion King // earned her two Tony Awards **: the first for Original Costume Design, and the second for Directing a Musical, making her the first woman to win this acclaim ("Julie Taymor"). In her youth she was commonly the youngest member of the group: she studied in Sri Lanka and India and worked with the Boston’s Children Theater and Experiment in International Living… all before graduating from high school ("Julie Taymor"). Taymor’s main focus of study was storytelling and puppetry. She is currently working on a Spider-Man musical with the musical group U2 ("Julie Taymor").

Because her main focus is on storytelling, Taymor embraces all forms of technology, acting, and movement to help her express the feeling and emotion of the narrative. This can be seen in the costumes and stage technology of //The Lion King.// The amazing combination of puppets and costumes creates a surreal vision of the African savanna. They are so unique that they can be identified as “Lion King” costumes by their style. The set designers also took full advantage of hydraulics and stage mechanics in the creation of Pride Rock and the wildebeest stampede.

A little know fact is that Taymor influenced subtle changes in the plot line of //The Lion King//’s Broadway production. While creating on the show, she reworked several parts of the story in order to communicate a fuller story and develop the character of Nala (Taymor). In focusing on all aspects of the story, Taymor does not allow the technology to steal the show, but rather support it. ** She takes advantage of spectacle and mass commercialism to talk to a much broader audience. ** Her knowledge of the abilities and limits of stage technology can be used to greatly enhance the story.

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<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The costumes in //The Lion King// draw on fantastic colors, animal prints, life-size depictions of animals, and most impressively, puppetry to create the wild African animal kingdom. The costumes for Mufasa and Scar feature mechanical headpieces that can be raised and lowered (Mann). Many of the animals portrayed are actors that employ extra tools to move their costumes, such as stilts to create the illusion of giraffes. Some characters are portrayed by actors in life-sized puppets or costumes. (The style of puppetry is a mixture of Bunraku puppetry from Japan and shadow puppetry from Indonesia.)
 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">THE LION KING: PUPPETRY AND COSTUMES **

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Guy Debord might argue that audiences love seeing fantastical images, such as the puppetry and costuming in //The Lion King//, because it gives us a false hope that there may be another world where the kinds of problems we face in our society don’t exist. It allows us to forget about, or become apathetic toward, such issues. In other words, it gives an excuse to “tune out” and ignore our problems.

Guy Debord would argue that giving into such unrealistic propaganda will negatively affect our grasp on reality. He writes:

<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"Where the real world changes into simple images, the simple images become real beings and effective motivations of hypnotic behavior. The spectacle, as a tendency to make one see the world by means of various specialized mediations, naturally finds vision to be the privileged human sense which the sense of touch was for other epochs; the most abstract, the most mystifiable sense corresponds to the generalized abstraction of present-day society."

<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">This means that what we see in //The Lion King// becomes reality to us. The magic of the costuming and puppetry makes it so that we can no longer grasp the world directly.

In addition, Debord asserts that:

<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"To the extent that necessity is socially dreamed, the dream becomes necessary. The spectacle is the nightmare of imprisoned modern society which ultimately expresses nothing more than its desire to sleep. **The spectacle is the guardian of sleep**."

<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">By this, Debord is trying to say that these fantastical images being thrown at us allow us to “sleep,” thereby becoming dormant in society. ** When we become apathetic to our surroundings, we become vulnerable to the effects of mass commodification and capitalism. **



<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Julie Taymor brings a unique and different perspective to the stage. As her aesthetic blends together cultural themes and puppetry, ** she manipulates the stage to give her performances the look of film. ** Through the manipulation of lighting and puppetry, Taymor is able to create wide shots, pans, and many more film shots. To achieve the appearance of close ups and medium shots, Taymore has used giant puppets, to imitate pans or trucks (Taymor). In //The Lion King//, the very beginning of the play starts with the rise of a sun over the pride lands. To imitate the Disney movie, set designer Richard Hudson and lighting designer Donald Holder created a large circle structure that was covered with strips of the cloth that would shimmer to catch the light. The slow rising and the size of the piece creates a wide shot that seems to gradually pull back as more creatures move onto the stage.
 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">//THE LION KING// ****<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">: FILM ELEMENTS **

<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Andalus;">** “THE SPECTACLE of a stage transforming, of Pride Rock coming into being before our eyes is more visually compelling and entertaining than seeing a curtain drawn to reveal a piece of scenery already in place.” **
 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Andalus;">~ Julie Taymor ( ****//<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Playing with Fire: Theater, Opera, Film //****<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">, 225) **

<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Another way that Taymor has manipulated the stage is in her take on the wildebeest stampede. Using both puppets and live actors the stage, Taymor’s stage seems to stretch back, giving the perception of greater depth. This mimics the use of a wide angle lens and demonstrates a greater depth perception.



For more information about puppetry, please visit: TOPIC Puppetry.

<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Theater lighting, although not always the main focus in technical theatre, has made extraordinary leaps and bounds in recent years. Conventional lighting is currently the standard in light labs: conventional lighting includes Altmans, Fresnels, and source fours, which are often manufactured by major companies like Vari-lite and High End Systems. The newest form of equipment to enter into the theater space is ** intelligent lighting **. Also known as “moving lights,” intelligent lights have added to the feeling of spectacle, especially for Broadway shows and the tours attached to them. Audiences can expect to see moving lights any time they watch a traveling show. ** For some, moving lights are a wonderful and innovative invention that significantly enhances an audience’s enjoyment of a performance: others believe that the overwhelming spectacle of moving lights detracts from theaters’ essential message and vision. **
 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">MOVING LIGHTS **

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<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Multimedia is a pretty new area of design in theater. Projections have been limited in the past to the use of a data projector. However, with the advent of instruments such as the DL3s, designers have a much greater range of flexibility and possibilities. Images, video and movement can be incorporated into the show. Although these instruments were originally developed for use in concerts and other large events, they are slowly crossing over to the theater world. As with most types of stage technology, they must be used with care.
 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">MULTIMEDIA IN THE THEATER **

<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Cirque du Soleil is known for its spectacular and lavish productions as well as costumes music and lighting. Patrons of Cirque du Soleil see the performance expecting to be astounded. Hydraulics, elaborate rigging systems, costumes, live bands and singers, and multimedia are all used to create an over-the-top experience for the audience.
 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">CIRQUE DE SOLEIL **

In the majority of Cirque de Soleil’s shows, there is a very basic story line tying the production together. The Cirque du Soleil show “KÁ” features one of the more developed plotlines of their shows. It includes the use of a large rotating platform—that doubles as a touch screen—on a hydraulic arm that moves up and down. The performance also includes a battle on a vertical wall and the “Wheel of Death.” These performances stand apart as some of the most spectacular of the day.

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Click image to enlarge.**<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">
 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">CONCEPT MAP **

TIMELINE ** Please use the link to access the time line: TimeLine REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS **
 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">

<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">What do you think Guy Debord means by "The spectacle is the guardian of sleep"? (Guy Debord) Where do you find theater acting as a "guardian of sleep"?

To what extent do you think theater that is commodified, if at all, in today's society? How does technology contribute to the commodification of theater?

Do you think technology is the chief contributor to the commodification of theater? If not, what do you think is the chief contributor?

What do you think is the significance, if any, of having room in society for the type of theater that Guy Debord might consider as "spectacle?"

If spectacle is so great, why didn't Disney's Broadway production of "Tarzan" survive longer?

While watching our installation in class, how did you feel as an audience member? How did the presentation relate to the quote at the end: "The spectacle is the guardian of sleep?"

Did anything in the installation cause you to think of yourself in the sense of being a member of a "society of spectacle" or of a society that wants nothing more than to sleep (as per Guy Debord)? TEXT SOURCES ** <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif';">Aristotle. "The Internet Classics Archive | Poetics by Aristotle." //The Internet Classics Archive//. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2009. Web. 02 May 2010. <http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/poetics.1.1.html>.
 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">

“Broadway Season Statistics." //The Broadway League - The Official Website of the Broadway Theatre Industry//. The Broadway League, 2010. Web. 02 May 2010. [].

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">"Broadway Theatre." //Wikipedia//. 30 Apr. 2010. Web. 04 May 2010. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadway_theatre>.

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Debord, Guy. "Society of the Spectacle." //Marxists Internet Archive//. Web. 02 May 2010. <http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/debord/society.htm>.

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">"Julie Taymor." //Wikipedia//. 27 Apr. 2010. Web. 06 May 2010. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Taymor>.

<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif';">"The Lion King (musical)". Wikipedia. 28 Apr. 2010 Web. 04 May 2010 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lion_King_%28musical%29>. <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif';">

"List of the Longest-running Broadway Shows." //Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia//. 27 Apr. 2010. Web. 02 May 2010. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_longest-running_Broadway_shows>.

<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif';">Mann, Holly. "Puppetry and THE LION KING". Boadway/San Diego. April 27, 2010 <http://www.broadwaysd.com/blog/?p=468>. <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif';">

Taymor, Julie, Eileen Blumenthal, and Antonio Monda. //Julie Taymor - Playing with Fire: Theater, Opera, Film//. 3rd ed. New York: Abrams, 2007. Print.

<span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif';">“ <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif';">Technology." //Dictionary.com//. Ask.com, 2010. Web. 02 May 2010. <http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/technology>.

<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; text-decoration: none;">[] [] <span style="color: windowtext; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">[] <span style="color: windowtext; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; text-decoration: none;">[] <span style="color: windowtext; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">[] [] [] [] [] <span style="font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> http://www2.disney.co.uk/MusicalTheatre/TheLionKing/images/thestory/pic-land-stampede.gif http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FvwEwozJgl4 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BvDW4DRj7gc&feature=related
 * <span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Maiandra GD','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">IMAGE SOURCES **